TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. IV
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………. 1
Gaming, Virtual Reality, and Training ……………………………………………………………………. 1
Gaming Research – A History ……………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Virtual Reality ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Virtual Reality and Game Training…………………………………………………………………………. 5
Efficacy, Confidence, and Willingness to Engage in a Task ………………………………………. 8
Present Research ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
CHAPTER 2. METHODS ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
Design ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
Participants ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
Drop-Outs and Missing Data ………………………………………………………………………….. 11
Demographics ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
Materials …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
Skill Testing …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
Games …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 14
Self-Reported Efficacy…………………………………………………………………………………… 16
Control Variables and Suspicion …………………………………………………………………….. 17
Procedure ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
Hypotheses ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
Analysis Plan …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
CHAPTER 3. RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
Sample Size and Power ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
Outliers ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
Correlations of Variables of Interest ……………………………………………………………………… 24
Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Preliminary Analyses …………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
Main Analyses: Z-Scores and Residuals…………………………………………………………… 27
Improvement of Performance …………………………………………………………………………. 30
Change of Self-Efficacy …………………………………………………………………………………. 32
CHAPTER 4. GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ………………………………………… 36
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 43
APPENDIX A. PAPER TARGET DISTANCE ………………………………………………………………… 49
APPENDIX B. AIRSOFT GUN ……………………………………………………………………………………… 50
APPENDIX C. PAPER TARGET …………………………………………………………………………………… 51
APPENDIX D. PUTTING MATT ………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
APPENDIX E. SCREENSHOT FROM BATTLEFIELD 4………………………………………………… 53
APPENDIX F. SCREENSHOT FROM THE GUN CLUB VR …………………………………………… 54
APPENDIX G. VIVE CONTROLLERS ………………………………………………………………………….. 55
APPENDIX H. THE EFFICACY OF SHOOTING BEHAVIORS SCALE ………………………….. 56
APPENDIX I. GOLF EFFICACY SCALE ………………………………………………………………………. 58
APPENDIX J. PRE-TRAINING SURVEY ……………………………………………………………………… 59
APPENDIX K. AGGRESSIVENESS SCALE………………………………………………………………….. 62
APPENDIX L. POST- TRAINING SESSION SURVEYS ………………………………………………… 64
APPENDIX M. INFORMED CONSENT FORM……………………………………………………………… 68
APPENDIX N. GUN TEST SCORES BOXPLOTS ………………………………………………………….. 71
APPENDIX O. GOLF TEST SCORES BOXPLOTS ………………………………………………………… 72
APPENDIX P. GUN AND GOLF EFFICACY SCORES BOXPLOTS ……………………………….. 73
APPENDIX Q. IRB APPROVAL …………………………………………………………………………………… 74